Examination of the Influence of the Socioeconomic Index on the Job Demands and Wellbeing of Principals and Vice-Principals in Quebec
Keywords:
Principals, Vice-principals, Disadvantaged environment, Job demands, WellbeingAbstract
30% of principals and vice-principals work in disadvantaged socioeconomic environments in Quebec (Ministry of Education of Quebec, 2024). While the nature of their work is essential, the demands of their daily tasks are a significant determinant of their job satisfaction (Leithwood et al., 2017; Marsh et al., 2023; Authors). This study aims to comparatively examine the perception of job demands and the wellbeing of principals and vice-principals (n = 864) in Quebec educational institutions, both with and without a disadvantaged context. The results show that the socioeconomic environment index (IMSE) partially affects respondents’ perceptions regarding job demands and their wellbeing, depending on their job function and the educational level. These findings are crucial for better understanding the professional dynamics of principals and vice-principals and can contribute to the development of more effective policies to support their work reality.
Downloads
References
Archambault, J. et Harnois, L. (2010). Les réactions de directions d’écoles de milieux défavorisés aux caractéristiques des écoles performantes de milieux défavorisés. Nouveaux cahiers de la recherche en éducation, 13(2), 109-126. https://doi.org/10.7202/1017285arCopiedAn
Archambault J. et Harnois L. (2012). Diriger une école primaire de milieu urbain défavorisé : les perceptions des directions d’écoles à propos de leur travail. Canadian Journal of Education, 35(1), 3–21. http://www.jstor.org/stable/canajeducrevucan.35.1.3
Archambault, J., Garon, R. et Harnois, L. (2014). Diriger une école en milieu défavorisé: observation des pratiques de travail de directions d’école primaire de la région de Montréal. McGill journal of education, 49(2), 417-436. https://doi.org/10.7202/1029427ar
Bakker, A. B. et Demerouti, E. (2007). The Job Demands-Resources model: State of the art. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 22(3), 309-328. https://doi.org/10.1108/02683940710733115
Bakker, A.B. et Oerlemans, W. (2011). Subjective well-being in organizations. Dans K. S. Cameron, et G. M. Spreitzer (dir.), The Oxford handbook of positive organizational scholarship (p. 178–189). Oxford University Press.
Bakker, A. B. et Demerouti, E. (2017). Job demands–resources theory: Taking stock and looking forward. Journal of occupational health psychology, 22(3), 273-285. https://doi.org/10.1037/ocp0000056
Bakker, A.B., Demerouti, E. et Sanz-Vergel A. (2023). Job demands–resources theory: ten years later. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 10, 25–53. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-120920-053933
Bartanen, B., Rogers, L. K. et Woo, D. S. (2021). Assistant principal mobility and its relationship with principal turnover. Educational Researcher, 50(6), 368-380. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X21993105
Béteille, T., Kalogrides, D. et Loeb, S. (2012), Stepping stones: principal career paths and school outcomes, Social Science Research, 41(4), 904-919. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssresearch.2012.03.003
Bourque, J., Doucet, D., LeBlanc, J., Dupuis, J., & Nadeau, J. (2019). L’alpha de Cronbach est l’un des pires estimateurs de la consistance interne: une étude de simulation. Revue des sciences de l’éducation, 45(2), 78-99. https://doi.org/10.7202/1067534ar
Brouhier, Q., Coppe, T., März, V. et Raemdonck, I. (2023). Professional learning of late-career teachers in early childhood education: A matter of (im) balance between personal resources, job resources, and job demands. Teaching and Teacher Education, 133, 104273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2023.104273
Burmeister, E. et Aitken, L. M. (2012). Sample size: how many is enough? Australian Critical Care: Official Journal of the Confederation of Australian Critical Care Nurses, 25(4), 271–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aucc.2012.07.002
Carroll, R. J. et Schneider, H. (1985). A note on levene’s tests for equality of variances. Statistics and Probability Letters, 3(4), 191–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/0167-7152(85)90016-1
Clément, L., Levasseur, A., Roy, M.-M. et Rivest, M.-C. (2023). L’organisation du travail des directions et des directions adjointes : examen des différences au regard des exigences et des ressources du travail. Le bulletin du GRIDE : De la théorie à la pratique, 5(2). https://www.gride-qc.ca/wp-content/uploads/2023/10/Clement-et-al.-2023.pdf
Clément, L., Fernet, C., Morin, A.J.S. et Austin, S. (2020). In Whom College Teachers Trust? On the Role of Specific Trust Referents and Basic Psychological Needs in Optimal Functioning at Work. HigherEducation, 80(3), 511-530. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-019-00496-z
Clément, L. (2018). Le leadership et la réussite scolaire en milieu défavorisé : le portrait contrasté d’une réalité complexe. Dans J.-J. Moisset, J. Plante et P. Toussaint (dir.). La gestion des ressources humaines pour la réussite scolaire (2e éd., p.381-400). Presses de l’Université du Québec.
Cochran, W. G. (1977). Sampling techniques. John Wiley & Sons.
Collie, R. J., Granziera, H. et Martin, A. J. (2020). School principals’ workplace well-being: a multination examination of the role of their job resources and job demands. Journal of Educational Administration, 58(4), 417–433. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEA-04-2019-0075
Dagenais-Desmarais, V. et Savoie, A. (2012). What is psychological well-being, really? A grassroots approach from the organizational sciences. Journal of Happiness Studies, 13, 659-684. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-011-9285-3
Danna, K. et Griffin, R. W. (1999). Health and Well-Being in the Workplace: A Review and Synthesis of the Literature. Journal of Management, 25(3), 357-384. https://doi.org/10.1177/014920639902500305
Decret-Rouillard, R., Mallard, S. et Reto, G. (2022). Division du travail dans les établissements scolaires publics français du secondaire: la fonction des adjoints de direction. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy, (199), 117-128. https://doi.org/10.7202/1091097ar
Demerouti, E., Bakker, A. B., Nachreiner, F. et Schaufeli, W. B. (2001). The job demands-resources model of burnout. Journal of Applied psychology, 86(3), 499-512. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.3.499
Dicke, T., Marsh, H. W., Riley, P., Parker, P. D., Guo, J. et Horwood, M. (2018). Validating the Copenhagen Psychosocial Questionnaire (COPSOQ-II) using set-ESEM: Identifying psychosocial risk factors in a sample of school principals. Frontiers in psychology, 9, 584. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00584
Dicke, T., Parker, P. D., Guo, J., Basarkod, G., Marsh, H. W., Deady, M., Harvey, S. et Riley, P. (2022). Ubiquitous emotional exhaustion in school principals: Stable trait, enduring autoregressive trend, or occasion-specific state? Journal of Educational Psychology, 114(2), 426–441. https://doi-org.acces.bibl.ulaval.ca/10.1037/edu0000582
Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95(3), 542–575. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.542
Diener, E. (2012). New findings and future directions for subjective well-being research. American Psychologist, 67(8), 590–597. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029541
Diener, E., Pressman S., Hunter, J. et Chase, D. (2017). If, why, and when subjective well-being influences health, and future needed research. Appl Psychol Health Well Being, 9(2), 133-167. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12090
Gastwirth, J. L., Gel, Y. R. et Miao, W. (2009). The Impact of Levene’s Test of Equality of Variances on Statistical Theory and Practice. Statist. Sci. 24(3) 343 - 360. https://doi.org/10.1214/09-STS301
Gravelle, F. (2012). Quels sont les principaux changements qui ont modifié la fonction de direction ou de direction adjointe d’établissement scolaire depuis l’avènement de la réforme de l’administration publique du Québec? Éducation et francophonie, 40(1), 76-93. https://www.erudit.org/fr/revues/ef/2012-v40-n1- ef0137/1010147ar.pdf
Gravelle, F. et Bissonnette, M. (2018). Stratégies de gestion en contexte de diversité en milieu scolaire: référentiel régissant la fonction de direction d’établissement d’enseignement au Québec. Alterstice, 8(2), 75-87. https://doi.org/10.7202/1066954ar
Grawitch, M. J., Ballard, D. W. et Erb, K. R. (2015). To be or not to be (stressed): The critical role of a psychologically healthy workplace in effective stress management. Stress and Health, 31(4), 264-273. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.2619
Grisay, A. (1999). Comment mesurer l’effet des systèmes scolaires sur les inégalités entre élèves. La justice du système éducatif, 113-138. http://www.aspe.ulg.ac.be/grisay/fichiers/CTB16b.pdf
Grissom, J. A., Loeb, S. et Mitani, H. (2015). Principal time management skills. Journal of Educational Administration, 53(6), 773–793. https:// doi.org/10.1108/JEA-09-2014-0117
Hayes, A. F. et Coutts, J. J. (2020). Use Omega Rather than Cronbach’s Alpha for Estimating Reliability. But…. Communication Methods and Measures, 14(1), 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/19312458.2020.1718629
Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44(3), 513-524. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.44.3.513
Hobfoll S.E., Halbesleben J., Neveu J. et Westman M. (2018). Conservation of resources in the organizational context: the reality of resources and their consequences. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 5,103–28. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032117-104640
Huang, C., Xie, X., Cheung, S. P., Zhou, Y. et Ying, G. (2021). Job demands, resources, and burnout in social workers in China: mediation effect of mindfulness. International journal of environmental research and public health, 18(19), 10526. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph181910526
Huppert, F. A. et So T. T. (2013). Flourishing across Europe: application of a new conceptual framework for defining well-being. Social Indicators Research, 110(3), 837-861. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-011-9966-7
Huta, V. et Waterman, A. S. (2014). Eudaimonia and its distinction from hedonia: Developing a classification and terminology for understanding conceptual and operational definitions. Journal of happiness studies, 15, 1425-1456. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-013-9485-0
Huyghebaert, T., Fouquereau, E., Lahiani, F. J., Beltou, N., Gimenes, G. et Gillet, N. (2018). Examining the longitudinal effects of workload on ill-being through each dimension of workaholism. International Journal of Stress Management, 25(2), 144-162. https://doi.org/10.1037/str0000055
Ilies, R., Bono, J. E. et Bakker, A. B. (2024). Crafting Well-Being: Employees Can Enhance Their Own Well-Being by Savoring, Reflecting upon, and Capitalizing on Positive Work Experiences. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 11, 63-91. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-110721-045931
Institut national de santé publique du Québec (INSPQ). (2024). Risques psychosociaux du travail et promotion de la santé des travailleurs. https://www.inspq.qc.ca/risques-psychosociaux-du-travail-et-promotion-de-la-sante-des-travailleurs/risques-psychosociaux-du-travail
Karasek, R. A. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24(2), 285-308. http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/2392498
Kim T. K. (2015). T test as a parametric statistic. Korean journal of anesthesiology, 68(6), 540–546. https://doi.org/10.4097/kjae.2015.68.6.540
Leithwood, K., Sun, J. et Pollock, K. (Eds.). (2017). How school leaders contribute to student success: The four paths framework, 23. Springer. 10.1007/978-3-319-50980-8
Lequeurre, J., Gillet, N., Ragot, C. et Fouquereau, E. (2013). Validation of a French questionnaire to measure job demands and resources. Revue internationale de psychologie sociale, 26(4), 93-124. https://www.cairn.info/revue--2013-4-page-93.htm.
Liebowitz, D. D. et Porter, L. (2019). The effect of principal behaviors on student, teacher, and school outcomes: A systematic review and metaanalysis of the empirical literature. Review of Educational Research, 89(5), 785–827. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654319866133
Liu, Y. et Bellibas, M. S. (2018). School factors that are related to school principals’job satisfaction and organizational commitment. International Journal of Educational Research, 90, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2018.04.002
Luthans, F. et Youssef-Morgan, C. M. (2017). Psychological capital: An evidence-based positive approach. Annual review of organizational psychology and organizational behavior, 4, 339-366. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032516-113324
Mäkelä, L., Tanskanen, J. et De Cieri, H. (2021). Do Relationships Matter? Investigating the Link Between Supervisor and Subordinate Dedication and Cynicism via the Quality of Leader–Member Exchange. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 28(1), 76-90. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051820967010
Manzano García, G. et Ayala Calvo, J. C. (2012). Emotional exhaustion of nursing staff: influence of emotional annoyance and resilience. International Nursing Review, 59(1), 101–107. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-7657.2011.00927.x
Markow, D., Macia, L. et Lee, H. (2013). The MetLife Survey of the American Teacher. Challenges for School Leadership. A Survey of Teachers and Principals. Repéré à https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED542202.pdf
Marsh, H. W., Dicke, T., Riley, P., Parker, P. D., Guo, J., Basarkod, G. et Martin, A. J. (2023). School principals’ mental health and well‐being under threat: A longitudinal analysis of workplace demands, resources, burnout, and well‐being. Applied Psychology: Health and Well‐Being, 15(3), 999-1027. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12423
McDonald, R. P. (1970). Theoretical foundations of principal factor analysis, canonical factor analysis, and alpha factor analysis. British Journal of Mathematical & Statistical Psychology, 23(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8317.1970.tb00432.x
Ministère de l’Éducation du Québec. (2023a). Indices de défavorisation des écoles publiques 2022-2023. https://www.education.gouv.qc.ca/fileadmin/site_web/documents/PSG/statistiques_info_decisionnelle/Indices-defavorisations_2022-2023.pdf
Ministère de l’Éducation du Québec. (2023b). Direction des Indicateurs et des Statistiques (DIS). Système du Personnel des commissions scolaires (PERCOS). Données au 23 mars 2023. https://bdso.gouv.qc.ca/pls/ken/ken213_afich_tabl.page_tabl?p_iden_tran=REPERJADG2N14179032085220x`HKi&p_lang=1&p_m_o=MEQ&p_id_raprt=3608#tri_statut=5&tri_personnel=15
Ministère de l’Éducation du Québec. (2024) Indices de défavorisation. Repéré à http://www.education.gouv.qc.ca/references/indicateurs-et-statistiques/indices-de-defavorisation/
Ministère de l’Éducation et de l’enseignement supérieur. (2017). Politique de la réussite éducative : le plaisir d’apprendre, la chance de réussir. https://www.education.gouv.qc.ca/fileadmin/site_web/documents/PSG/politiques_orientations/politique_reussite_educative_10juillet_F_1.pdf
Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric Theory. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Office québécois de la langue française (OQLF) (2024). Grand dictionnaire terminologique « défavorisation ». https://vitrinelinguistique.oqlf.gouv.qc.ca/fiche-gdt/fiche/8363322/defavorisation
Poirel, E., Lauzon, N. et Clément, L. (dir.) (2020). L’actualisation du leadership. Dans Formation et développement professionnel des directions d’établissement (p. 79-96). Presses de l’Université du Québec. 89.
Poirel, E., Yvon, F., Lapointe, P. et Denecker, C. (2017). La fonction de direction scolaire adjointe: une comparaison des sources de stress entre adjoints et directions. Revue des sciences de l’éducation, 43(2), 231-260. https://doi.org/10.7202/1043031ar
Schaufeli, W. B., Leiter, M. P., Maslach, C. et Jackson, S. E. (1996). Maslach burnout inventory-general survey. Dans C. Maslach, S. E. Jackson et M. P. Leiter (dir.), The Maslach burnout inventory-test manual (3e éd., p.22-26). Consulting Psychologists Press.
Schaufeli, W. B., Bakker, A. B. et Salanova, M. (2006). The measurement of work engagement with a short questionnaire: A cross-national study. Educational and psychological measurement, 66(4), 701-716. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164405282471
See, S-M., Kidson, P., Marsh, H. et Dicke, T. (2022). The Australian Principal Occupational Health, Safety and Wellbeing Survey (IPPE Report). Institute for Positive Psychology and Education, Australian Catholic University. https://www.healthandwellbeing.org/reports/AU/2022_ACU_Principals_HWB_Final_Report.pdf
Serour, N., Jury, M. et Toczek-Capelle, M. C. (2021). Orientation des élèves en difficulté à la fin de l’école primaire: étude du rôle du milieu social de l’élève sur les propositions d’orientation des enseignant· e· s du premier degré. L’orientation scolaire et professionnelle, 50(2), 287-310. https://doi.org/10.4000/osp.14180
Skaik Y. (2015). The bread and butter of statistical analysis “t-test”: Uses and misuses. Pak J Med Sci. 2015 Nov-Dec; 31(6), 1558-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.12669/pjms.316.8984
St-Germain, M. (2012). Étude des divergences entre le temps de travail réel et le temps de travail souhaité chez les directions membres de la FQDE Version abrégée. Gatineau. Repéré à http://www.fcdef.ca/wp-content/uploads/2015/11/Michel-St-Germain-version-abregee.pdf
Tabachnick, B. G. et Fidell, L. S. (2007). Experimental designs using ANOVA (Vol. 724). Belmont, CA: Thomson/Brooks/Cole.
Temam, S., Billaudeau, N. et Vercambre, M. N. (2019). Overall and work-related well-being of teachers in socially disadvantaged schools: a population-based study of French teachers. BMJ open, 9(9), e030171. http://dx.doi. org/10.1136/bmjopen-2019- 030171
Trudeau, S., Bergeron-Bonnelly, L., Sénéchal, C., Brunet, L. et Savoie, A. (2018). Santé psychologique et climat organisationnel des directions d’écoles: sont-ils reliés au statut socioéconomique?. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Simon-Trudeau/publication/325022518_School_administrators’_psychological_health_and_organizational_climate_Are_they_related_to_socioeconomic_status/links/5af1e476458515c28375c820/School-administrators-psychological-health-and-organizational-climate-Are-they-related-to-socioeconomic-status.pdf
Wang, F. (2024). Principals’ well-being: understanding its multidimensional nature. School Leadership & Management, 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632434.2024.2334942
Waterman, A. S. (2013). Introduction: Considering the nature of a life well-lived—Intersections of positive psychology and eudaimonist philosophy. In A. S. Waterman (Ed.), The best within us: Positive psychology perspectives on eudaimonia (pp. 3–17). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14092-001
Xanthopoulou, D., Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E. et Schaufeli, W. B. (2009). Reciprocal relationships between job resources, personal resources, and work engagement. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 74(3), 235-244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2008.11.003
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Marie-Christine Rivest, Louise Clément, Emmanuel Poirel

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Authors who publish with this journal agree to the following terms:
a. Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
b. Authors are able to enter into separate, additional contractual arrangements for the non-exclusive distribution of the journal's published version of the work (e.g., post it to an institutional repository or publish it in a book), with an acknowledgement of its initial publication in this journal.
c. Authors are permitted and encouraged to post their work online (e.g., in institutional repositories or on their website) prior to and during the submission process, as it can lead to productive exchanges, as well as earlier and greater citation of published work.