Five Early European Winterings in the Atlantic Arctic (1596-1635): A Comparison

Abstract

In the late 16th and early 17th century ten English and Dutch winterings took place in northern regions in less than 100 years. The first wintering occurred in 1553, when the ship of the Englishman Hugh Willoughby became frozen in the Arzina River in northern Russia, and the last in this period took place when seven Dutch volunteers were left behind to winter in Smeerenburg in 1634. Between these two, eight other wintering attempts were undertaken. Some of these were involuntary, while others were voluntary and planned. Five of these winterings are here compared with one another to answer the question why some were successful while others failed. Besides the many practical problems, such as extremes of temperature, primitive housing and illness, the winters were confronted with psychological problems caused by isolation, overcrowding, boredom and a strange environment, with unknown noises and light phenomena. For the solution of the practical problems ingenuity and creatively were required and both faith and the daily practice of religion were important in tackling psychological problems and keeping diurnal rhythms going. These rhythms turned out to be very important during the polar night. The wintering group that successfully maintained its diurnal rhythm and remained active during the polar night had the best chance of surviving the polar winter.

Key words: Willem Barents, whaling, expeditions, Arctic, Novaya Zemlya, Spitsbergen, Jan Mayen